[!Cite] Sternberg, R. J., & Soleimani Dashtaki, A. (2025). Effectivity: An alternative to conceptions of gifted under- and over-achievement. Gifted Education International, 41(2), 182–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/02614294241280862

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[!md] FirstAuthor:: Sternberg, Robert J   Author:: Soleimani Dashtaki, Arezoo   ~     Title:: Effectivity: An alternative to conceptions of gifted under- and over-achievement Year:: 2025 Citekey:: sternbergEffectivityAlternativeConceptions2025 itemType:: journalArticle Journal:: Gifted Education International Volume:: 41 Issue:: 2 Pages:: 182-210 DOI:: 10.1177/02614294241280862

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[!Abstract]

This article introduces the concept of effectivity, which is the power to be effective or to achieve a certain effect to accomplish one’s goals, in this case, desired school or life achievement. Giftedness would be better defined and developed in terms of effectivity than in terms of various concepts of ability. The concept of effectivity hinges on the idea that what determines, or what influences achievement, includes cognitive ability, but only as a small part of the total picture. Gifted “underachievement” as well as “overachievement” disappear when one understands giftedness in terms of effectivity. .  

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Two concepts in the literature on educational and school psychology are “underachiever” and “overachiever.” Although there are various definitions of these concepts, they are usually defined such that an underachiever works at a level below their measured ability, and an overachiever works at a level above their measured ability (Karnes et al., 1961).

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The measures that the ability-test scores are compared to—school grades and achievement-test scores—have flaws of their own, but those flaws are not the main focus of this essay.

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However, much of the concept of under- and over-achievement assumes the validity of IQ and related measures as indices of ability. If this assumption is inadequate, both the conceptualization and operationalization of under- and overachievement as they exist in much of the field must be questioned.

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In each of these cases, a student whose academic performance might have signaled “underachievement” was rather achieving at a level that was not only high but directed toward their particular career and life aspirations. How, really, can educators even identify underachievers, should they exist, without considering what they, the students, are trying to achieve in their lives?

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The construct of overachievement—achieving at a level higher than one supposedly should, based on one’s ability—is even less plausible than the construct of underachievement. If one is achieving at a level over that predicted by ability measures, the problem is with the measures, not with the individual. To denigrate the individual—perhaps as a grind or a plod or simply as someone over-ambitious—does a tremendous disservice to the individual. Suppose IQ, or the maj

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These factors, taken together, influence what we here call effectivity, which is defined as the power to be effective or achieve a certain effect (www.vocabulary.com), in this case, desired school or life achievement. The concept of effectivity is based on the notion that what determines, or at least influences, achievement includes cognitive ability, but only as a small part of the metaphorical equation. To refer to someone as under- or over-achieving based on a comparison between a score on a limited (ability) test and a score on another limited (achievement) test, or with school grades, presents a narrow view of the full range of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and other characteristics that underlie achievement, in school or anyplace else. What matters is not merely ability but also effectivity—one’s overall potential to achieve effectively at particular desired levels of achievement. If one adopts effectivity as a notion, the notions of under- and overachievement go away. What are the elements of effectivity?

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Effectivity is predicted by the interaction of personal, environmental, and task-related resources (see Figure 1). Personal resources include basic cognitive, metacognitive, perceptual, learning, attentional, motivational, and personality resources. Task-related resources include achievement tests, everyday tasks, essays, projects and portfolios, and performances of various kinds. Environmental resources include levels of the environment, as described below.

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Furthermore, studies have shown the importance of self-regulation (Baum et al., 1995; Neumeister & H ́ebert, 2003; Nota et al., 2004; Steenbergen-Hu et al., 2020) and selfmonitoring (Siegle, 2022) in predicting students’ performance. These abilities help students evaluate their work and ascertain their strengths and weaknesses. Interventions focused on enhancing students’ self-regulation a

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